Optimizing Milking Practices for Water Buffalo Welfare: A Review of Temperament, Behaviour and Udder Physiology
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v14i2.608-620.8526Keywords:
Buffalo cow, Avoidance distance, Temperament, Milking traits, Milk qualityAbstract
Confinement-based intensive production of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) raises challenges for sustainable milk production, milk quality and consumer apprehensions about animal welfare and food safety. Despite the fact that the reactivity of buffaloes to machine milking constitutes a new scientific field, it is a new phenomenon that is the subject of current debate. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of water buffalo cow behaviour and physiological responses that are relevant to optimizing milking management and animal welfare in these systems. It focuses on the relationships between udder characteristics, milking temperament, human-animal interactions, and management strategies. Our literature review suggests that: i) species-specific milking techniques are essential due to udder differences between buffaloes and cattle, ii) minimizing stress optimizes milk ejection and yield, iii) gentle handling improves buffalo welfare, and iv) a holistic approach integrating udder physiology, behaviour, and management is crucial for sustainable production.
References
Abed, M. J., & Hasso, S. A. (2019). Molecular detection of Babesia bigemina in ticks infesting water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in Iraq. Al-Qadisiyah Journal of Veterinary Medicine Sciences, 18(1), 15-22.
Akdağ, A., Okuyucu, İ. C., Erdem, H., Kul, E., & Ocak, N. (2024). Some Welfare Assessment Traits and Quantitative-Qualitative Milk Parameters as Affected by Supplementary Feeding at Milking and Parity in Anatolian Buffalo Cows. Animals, 14(6), 956. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14060956.
Antanaitis, R., Juozaitienė, V., Jonike, V., Čukauskas, V., Urbšienė, D., Urbšys, A., Baumgartner, W., & Paulauskas, A. (2021). Relationship between Temperament and Stage of Lactation, Productivity and Milk Composition of Dairy Cows. Animals, 11(7), 1840. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11071840.
Atigui, M., Brahmi, M., Hammadi, I., Marnet, P.G., & Hammadi, M. (2021). Machine Milkability of Dromedary Camels: Correlation between Udder Morphology and Milk Flow Traits. Animals, 11(7), 2014. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11072014.
Bach, A., & Cabrera, V. (2017). Robotic milking: feeding strategies and economic returns. Journal of Dairy Science, 100 (9), 7720–7728. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2016-11694.
Battini, M., Andreoli, E., Barbieri, S., & Mattiello, S. (2011). Long-term stability of Avoidance Distance tests for on-farm assessment of dairy cow relationship to humans in alpine traditional husbandry systems. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 135(4), 267-270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2011.10.013.
Berry, D. P., Coyne, J., Coughlan, B., Burke, M., McCarthy, J., Enright, B., Cromie, A. R., & McParland, S. (2013). Genetics of milking characteristics in dairy cows. Animal, 7(11), 1750-1758. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731113001511.
Borghese, A. (2010). Development and perspective of buffalo and buffalo market in Europe and Near East. In Proc. 9th World Buffalo Congress, Buenos Aires, 25-28.
Borghese, A., Rasmussen, M., & Thomas, C.S. (2007). Milking management of dairy buffalo. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 6(2), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2007.s2.39
Boselli, C., De Marchi, M., Costa, A., & Borghese, A. (2020). Study of milkability and its relation with milk yield and somatic cell in Mediterranean Italian water buffalo. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 432. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00432.
Café, L. M., Robinson D. L., Ferguson, D. M., McIntyre, B. L., Geesink, G. H., & Greenwood, P. L. (2011). Cattle temperament: persistence of assessments and associations with productivity, efficiency, carcass and meat quality traits. Journal of Animal Science, 89(5), 1452-1465. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2010-3304.
Caria, M., Boselli, C., Murgia, L., Rosati, R., & Pazzona, A. (2012). Effect of vacuum level on milk flow traits in Mediterranean Italian buffalo cow. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 11(1), e25, 137-139. https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2012.e25.
Caria, M., Boselli, C., Murgia, L., Rosati, R., & Pazzona, A. (2013). Influence of low vacuum levels on milking characteristics of sheep, goat and buffalo. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 44(2), 217-220.
Caria, M., Murgia, L., & Pazzona, A. (2011). Effects of the working vacuum level on mechanical milking of buffalo. Journal of dairy science, 94(4), 1755-1761. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2010-3134.
Cavallina, R., Roncoroni, C., Campagna, M. C., Minero, M., & Canali, E. (2008). Buffalo behavioural response to machine milking in early lactation. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 7(3), 287-295. https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2008.287.
Chang, Y., Brito, L.F., Alvarenga, A. B., & Wang, Y. (2020). Incorporating temperament traits in dairy cattle breeding programs: Challenges and opportunities in the phenomics era. Animal Frontiers, 10(2), 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1093/af/vfaa006.
Choudhary, K. K., Bharadwaj, A., Sharma, R. K., Jerome, A., & Khanna, S. (2017). Relationship of temperament with oestrous behaviour, resumption of ovarian cyclicity and milk yield in post‐partum Murrah buffaloes. Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 52(6), 962-968. https://doi.org/10.1111/rda.13004.
Cogato, A., Brščić, M., Guo, H., Marinello, F., & Pezzuolo, A. (2021). Challenges and tendencies of automatic milking systems (AMS): A 20-years systematic review of literature and patents. Animals 11 (2), 356. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020356.
Costa, A., De Marchi, M., Visentin, G., Campagna, M.C., Borghese, A., & Boselli, C. (2020). The effect of pre-milking stimulation on teat morphological parameters and milk traits in the Italian Water Buffalo. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 572422. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.572422.
Das, K. S., & Das, N. (2004). Pre-partum udder massaging as a means for reduction of fear in primiparous cows at milking. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 89(1–2), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2004.06.005.
de Lima Carvalhal, M. V., Sant’Anna A. C., Páscoa, A. G, Jung, J., & da Costa, M. J. R. P. (2017). The relationship between water buffalo cow temperament and milk yield and quality traits. Livestock Science, 198, 109-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2017.02.016.
De Rosa, G., Grasso, F., Winckler, C., Bilancione, A., Pacelli, C., Masucci, F., & Napolitano, F. (2015). Application of the Welfare Quality protocol to dairy buffalo farms: Prevalence and reliability of selected measures. Journal of dairy science, 98(10), 6886-6896. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-9350.
De Rosa, G., Napolitano, F., Grasso, F., Pacelli, C., & Bordi, A. (2005). On the development of a monitoring scheme of buffalo welfare at farm level. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 4, 115-125. https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2005.115.
Degirmencioglu, T., Unal, H., & Kuraloglu, H. (2022). The effect of different milking techniques on the performance of the Anatolian water buffaloes. Buffalo Bulletin, 41(2), 337-344. https://doi.org/10.56825/bufbu.2022.4122912.
do Nascimento Rangel, A. H., de Oliveira, J. P. F., de Medeiros, H. R., de Araújo, V.M., Novaes, L. P., & de Lima Júnior, D. M. (2014). Influence of Murrah buffalo behavior in milking parlors on production characteristics. Archives of Veterinary Science, 19(3), 53-61.
Erdem, H., & Okuyucu, I. C. (2019). Influence of hygiene status of cows on somatic cell count and milk components during summer season. Large Animal Review, 25(1), 7-10.
Erdem, H., Okuyucu, I. C., & Abaci, S. H. (2022). Milking temperament of Anatolian buffaloes during early lactation. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 253, 105679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105679.
Ermetin, O., Kul, E., & Okuyucu, I. C. (2024). The relationship of somatic cell count with milk yield and composition in different stages of lactation in Holstein cows. Veterinarski arhiv, 94(1), 21-32. https://doi.org/10.24099/vet.arhiv.2213.
Estévez-Moreno, L. X., Miranda-de la Lama, G. C., Villarroel, M., García, L., Abecia, J. A., Santolaria, P., & María G. A. (2021). Revisiting cattle temperament in beef cow-calf systems: Insights from farmers’ perceptions about an autochthonous breed. Animals, 11(1), 82. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11010082.
Faraz, A., Waheed, A., Nazir, M. M., Hameed, A., Tauqir, N. A., Mirza, R. H., Ishaq, H. M., & Bilal, R. M. (2020). Impact of oxytocin administration on milk quality, reproductive performance and residual effects in dairy animals–a review. Punjab University Journal of Zoology, 35(1), 61-67. https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pujz/2020.35.1.61.67.
Faugno, S., Pindozzi, S., Okello, C., & Sannino, M. (2015). Testing the application of an automatic milking system on buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 46(1), 13-18.
Faye, B., Konuspayeva, G., & Koç, A. (2021). Süt Devesi Yetiştiriciliği Bakım-Yönetim Kılavuzu. Akademisyen Kitabevi. Sayfa: 18. [In Turkish].
Ferguson, D., & Warner, R (2008). Have we underestimated the impact of pre-slaughter stress on meat quality in ruminants. Meat Science, 80, 12-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2008.05.004.
Grandin, T. (1989). Behavioral principles of livestock handling. Professional Animal Scientist, 5(2), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.15232/S1080-7446(15)32304-4.
Hemsworth, P. H., Coleman, G. J., Barnett, J. L., & Borg, S. (2000). Relationships between human-animal interactions and productivity of commercial dairy cows. Journal of Animal Science, 78, 2821–2831. https://doi.org/10.2527/2000.78112821x.
Jaśkowski, J. M., Jaśkowski, B. M., Herudzińska, M., Tul, O., & Ciorga, M. (2023). Contemporary Knowledge on the Assessment of Temperament in Cattle and Its Impact on Production and Reproduction Including Some Immunological, Genetic and Metabolic Parameters. Animals, 13(12), 1944. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13121944.
Kaskous, S. (2018). Optimization of the pulsation ratio during the course of milk removal after using a quarter individual milking system “MultiLactor”. International Journal of Agriculture Innovations and Research, 6, 284–289.
Kaskous, S, & Pfaffl, M. W. (2023). Milking machine settings and liner design are important to improve milking efficiency and lactating animal welfare —Technical Note. AgriEngineering, 5(3), 1314-1326. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering5030083.
Kilgour, B. R (1975). The open-field test as an assessment of the temperament of dairy cows. Animal Behaviour, 23, 615-624. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(75)90139-6.
Kutzer, T., Steilen, M., Gygax, L., & Wechsler, B. (2015). Habituation of dairy heifers to milking routine—Effects on human avoidance distance, behavior, and cardiac activity during milking. Journal of Dairy Science, 98(8), 5241–5251. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2014-8773.
Lanzoni, L., Chincarini, M., Giammarco, M., Fusaro, I., Gloria, A., Contri, A., Ferri, N., & Vignola, G. (2021). Maternal and Neonatal Behaviour in Italian Mediterranean Buffaloes. Animals, 11(6), 1584. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11061584.
Mattachini, G., Pompe, J., Finzi, A., Tullo, E., Riva, E., & Provolo, G. (2019). Effects of feeding frequency on the lying behavior of dairy cows in a loose housing with automatic feeding and milking system. Animals 9(4), 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9040121.
Maurya, P., Patbandha, T. K., Odedra, M. D., Singh, V. K., Kalasava, S. K., & Agravat, P. H. (2024). Milking reactivity influences daily yield and electrical resistance of milk in Jaffarabadi buffaloes. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research, 25(2), 161. https://doi.org/10.22099/IJVR.2024.49370.7245.
Mincu, M., Gavojdian, D., Nicolae, I., Olteanu, A. C., Bota, A., & Vlagioiu, C. (2022). Water buffalo responsiveness during milking: Implications for production outputs, reproduction fitness, and animal welfare. Animals, 12(22), 3115. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12223115.
Mintoo, A. A., Zhang, H., Chen, C., Moniruzzaman, M., Deng, T., Anam, M., Huque, Q. M. E., Guang, X., Wang, P., Zhong, Z., Han, P., Khatun, A., Awal, T. M., Gao, Q., & Liang, X. (2019). Draft genome of the river water buffalo. Ecology and Evolution, 9(6), 3378-3388. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.4965.
Mota-Rojas, D., De Rosa, G., Mora-Medina, P., Braghieri, A., Guerrero-Legarreta, I., & Napolitano, F. (2019). Dairy buffalo behaviour and welfare from calving to milking. CAB Reviews, 14(035), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1079/PAVSNNR201914035.
Mota-Rojas, D., Maurice Broom, D., Orihuela, A., Velarde, A., Napolitano, F., & Alonso-Spilsbury, M. (2020). Effects of human-animal relationship on animal productivity and welfare. Journal of Animal Behaviour and Biometeorology, 8: 196-205. https://10.31893/jabb.20026.
Napolitano, F., De Rosa, G., Grasso, F., & Bordi, A. (2004). Influence of space restriction on welfare of weaned buffalo calves (Bubalus bubalis). Livestock Production Science 86, 117–124.
Napolitano, F., Bragaglio, A., Sabia, E., Serrapica, F., Braghieri, A., & De Rosa, G. (2020). The human− animal relationship in dairy animals. Journal of Dairy Research, 87(S1), 47-52. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022029920000606.
Napolitano, F., Braghieri, A., Bragaglio, A., Rodríguez-González, D., Mora-Medina, P., Ghezzi, M. D., Álvarez-Macías, A., Anahí Lendez, P., Sabia, E., Domínguez-Oliva, A., Jacome-Romero, J., & Mota-Rojas, D. (2022). Neurophysiology of milk ejection and prestimulation in dairy buffaloes. Animals, 12(19), 2649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12192649.
Napolitano, F., Grasso, F., Bordi, A., Tripaldi, C., Saltalamacchia, F., Pacelli, C., & De Rosa, G. (2005). On-farm welfare assessment in dairy cattle and buffaloes: evaluation of some animal-based parameters. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 4(3), 223-231. https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2005.223.
Napolitano, F., Pacelli, C., Grasso, F., Braghieri, A., & De Rosa, G. (2013). The behaviour and welfare of buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in modern dairy enterprises. Animal, 7(10), 1704-1713. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731113001109.
Napolitano, F., Serrapica, F., Braghieri, A., Masucci, F., Sabia, E., & De Rosa, G. (2019). Human-animal interactions in dairy buffalo farms. Animals, 9(5), 246. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9050246.
Okuyucu, İ. C., Akdağ, A., Erdem, H., Kop-Bozbay, C., Abacı, S. H., Garipoğlu, A. V., Hazneci, E, & Ocak. N. (2024). Welfare assessment traits, milk quantity and quality, and profitability of Anatolian buffalo cows confined in closed-tied or semi-open free-stall barns can be affected by supplementary feeding at milking. Animal Bioscience, 37(6), 1110. https://doi.org/10.5713/ab.23.0366.
Okuyucu, I. C, Bayyurt, L., Akdag, A., Cem, T., & Bulu, A. (2018). Evaluation of enterprises raising water buffalo in Samsun province of Turkey. International Journal of Scientific and Technological Research, 4(8), 1-5.
Orihuela, A., Mota-Rojas, D., Strappini, A., Serrapica, F., Braghieri, A., Mora-Medina, P., & Napolitano, F. (2021). Neurophysiological mechanisms of cow–calf bonding in buffalo and other farm animals. Animals, 11(7), 1968. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11071968.
Patel, H. A., Srivastava, A. K., Chauhan, H. D., & Patel, J. B. (2017). Parity effect on milk letdown time in Mehsana buffaloes. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 5(6), 234–238. http://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.aavs/2017/5.6.234.238.
Phillips, H. N., Sorge, U. S., & Heins, B. J. (2021). Effects of pre-parturient iodine teat dip applications on modulating aversive behaviors and mastitis in primiparous cows. Animals 11(6), 1623. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11061623.
Pinto, L. F. B., Medrado, B. D., Pedrosa, V. B., & Brito, L. F. (2025). A systematic review with meta‐analysis of heritability estimates for temperament‐related traits in beef and dairy cattle populations. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 142(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbg.12874.
Polikarpus, A., Napolitano, F., Grasso, F., Di Palo, R., Zicarelli, F., Arney, D., & De Rosa, G. (2014). Effect of pre-partum habituation to milking routine on behaviour and lactation performance of buffalo heifers. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 161, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.10.003.
Prasad, R. M. V., & Laxmi, P.J. (2014). Studies on the temperament of Murrah buffaloes with various udder and teat shapes and its effect on milk yield. Buffalo Bulletin, 33(2), 170-176.
Rousing, T., Bonde, M., Badsberg, J., & Sorensen, J. (2004). Stepping and kicking behavior during milking in relation to response in human–animal interaction test and clinical health in loose housed dairy cows. Livestock Production Science, 88(1-2), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livprodsci.2003.12.001.
Sabia, E., Napolitano, F., Claps, S., De Rosa, G., Barile, V. L., Braghieri, A., & Pacelli, C. (2018). Environmental impact of dairy buffalo heifers kept on pasture or in confinement. Agricultural Systems, 159, 42-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2017.10.010.
Saltalamacchia, F., Castellano, A., Musto, M., Napoletano, F., De Rosa, G., & Tripaldi, C. (2005). Human-buffalo interactions during milking and its relationship with alveolar milk. In Atti 3° Congresso Nazionale sull’Allevamento del Bufalo (pp. 63-64), October 12-15, ITA.
Sannino, M., Faugno, S., Crimaldi, M., Di Francia, A., Ardito, L., Serrapica, F., & Masucci, F. (2018). Effects of an automatic milking system on milk yield and quality of Mediterranean buffaloes. Journal of dairy science, 101(9), 8308-8312. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-14157.
Sariozkan, S. (2011). The Importance of Water Buffalo Breeding in Turkey. Kafkas Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(1), 163-166. https://doi.org/10.9775/kvfd.2010.2446. [In Turkish].
Sewalem, A., Miglior, F., & Kistemaker, G. J. (2011). Short communication: Genetic parameters of milking temperament and milking speed in Canadian Holsteins, Journal of Dairy Science, 94, 512–516. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2010-3479.
Shahid, M. Q., Abdullah, M., Bhatti, J. A., Javed, K., Babar, M. E., Jabbar, M. A., & Zahid, I. A. (2012). Machine milking performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes on different pre-milking stimulation practices. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 22 (3), 284–287.
Shehar, R., Roy, B., Mishra, A., Sheikh, A. A., & Bhagat, R. (2015). Effect of temperament on let-down time, milking time, milk yield and milk flow rate in different months in Gir Cows. International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies, 2(6), 51-53.
Singh, P. K., Kamboj, M. L., Chandra, S., & Singh, R. K. (2017). Effect of calf suckling dummy calf used and weaning on milk ejection stimuli and milk yield of Murrah buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem, 6, 1012-1015.
Smolinger, J., & Škorjanc, D. (2021). Methods of Assessing Cattle Temperament and Factors Affecting it. Agricultura, 18(1-2), 23-37. https://doi.org/10.18690/agricultura.18.1-2.23-37.2021.
Sriranga, K. R., Rao, T. K. S., Harini, K. R., Singh, R. R., & Patel, N. B. (2023). Expression of parlour behaviour, temperament, welfare and approach test in postpartum Surti buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 93, 90-94. https://doi.org/10.56093/ijans.v93i1.127117.
Stepancheva, T., Marinov, I., & Gergovska, Z. (2024). Milking Temperament and Its Association with Test-Day Milk Yield in Bulgarian Murrah Buffaloes. Animals, 14(7), 987. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14070987.
Tangorra F. M., Leonardi, S., Bronzo, V., Rota, N., & Moroni P. (2017). Pre-milking mechanical teat stimulation and milking performance of dairy buffaloes in early lactation. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 48(1), 53-55.
Thomas, C. S., Bruckmaier, R. M., Östensson, K., & Svennersten-Sjaunja, K. (2005). Effect of different milking routines on milking-related release of the hormones oxytocin, prolactin and cortisol, and on milk yield and milking performance in Murrah buffaloes. Journal of Dairy Research, 72: 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022029904000457.
Thomas, C. S., Svennersten-Sjaunja, K., Bhosrekar, M. R., & Bruckmaier, R.M. (2004a). Mammary cisternal size, cisternal milk and milk ejection in Murrah buffaloes. Journal of Dairy Research, 71(2), 162-168. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022029904000081
Thomas, C. S. (2004b). Milking Management of Dairy Buffaloes. Ph.D. Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
Tulloh, N.M. (1961). Behaviour of cattle in the yards. II. A study of temperament. Animal Behaviour, 9, 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(61)90046-X.
Upadhyay, V. K., Tomar, A. K. S., Patel, B. H. M., Golhe, D. M., Sahu, S., & Bharti, P. K. (2015). Effect of early weaning on milking behaviour, production and reproduction of Tharparkar cows. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 68(5), 477–482.
Van Reenen, C. G., Van der Werf, J. T. N., Bruckmaier, R. M., Hopster, H., Engel, B., Noordhuizen, J. P. T. M., & Blokhuis, H. J., 2002. Individual differences in behavioral and physiological responsiveness of primiparous dairy cows to machine milking. Journal of Dairy Science, 85(10), 2551-2561. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(02)74338-5.
Waiblinger, S., Menke, C., & Coleman, G. (2002). The relationship between attitudes, personal characteristics and behavior of stockpeople and subsequent behavior and production of dairy cows. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 79, 195–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00155-7.
Waiblinger, S., Menke, C., & Fölsch, D. W. (2003). Influences on the avoidance and approach behavior of dairy cows towards humans on 35 farms. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 84, 23–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(03)00148-5.
Zhang, Y., Colli, L., & Barker, J. S. F. (2020). Asian water buffalo: domestication, history and genetics. Animal Genetics, 51(2), 177-191. https://doi.org/10.1111/age.12911.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
