Some Essential and Non-Essential Elements in Edible Salts Commonly Consumed in Türkiye: Nutritional Considerations and Risk Assessment
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v14i1.93-102.8180Keywords:
Salts, Elements, Public health, Risk assesment, Food contaminationAbstract
Salt is a daily staple food and an important source of minerals. However, contamination in salt can pose public health risks. This study aimed to determine the concentrations of essential (calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron, manganese) and non-essential elements (aluminum, boron, chromium, nickel) in 11 commonly consumed edible salts in Türkiye and evaluate their potential health risks and nutritional contributions. The element levels were determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), health risk assessments were conducted, and the percentage contributions of the elements to daily dietary reference values were calculated. The highest calcium, potassium, magnesium, aluminum, iron, manganese, and nickel levels were found in S5 (Himalayan salt), while chromium was highest in S9 (rock salt). Hazard index values remained below the safety threshold, and all salts were evaluated as low risk. Although the risk assessment suggests no immediate threat based on the current data, the necessity for comprehensive element analyses of edible salts remains crucial. Moreover, despite the variations in mineral levels, the assessed salts are unlikely to meet the recommended daily intake levels for essential minerals.
References
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. (2023). Exposure dose guidance for body weight. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pha-guidance/resources/ATSDR-EDG-Body-Weight-508.pdf
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. (2024). Toxicological profile for nickel. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=245&tid=44
Al Alawi, A. M., Majoni, S. W., & Falhammar, H. (2018). Magnesium and human health: Perspectives and research directions. International Journal of Endocrinology, 2018, 9041694. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9041694
Alasfar, R. H., & Isaifan, R. J. (2021). Aluminum environmental pollution: The silent killer. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 28(33), 44587-44597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14700-0
Ali, H., Khan, E., & Ilahi, I. (2019). Environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology of hazardous heavy metals: Environmental persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation. Journal of Chemistry, 2019, 6730305. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6730305
Antoine, J. M. R., Fung, L. A. H., & Grant, C. N. (2017). Assessment of the potential health risks associated with the aluminum, arsenic, cadmium and lead content in selected fruits and vegetables grown in Jamaica. Toxicology Reports, 4, 181-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2017.03.006
Bonfiglio, R., Scimeca, M., & Mauriello, A. (2023). The impact of aluminum exposure on human health. Archives of Toxicology, 97, 2997-2998. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-023-03581-6
Chan, M. W. H., Hasan, K. A., Balthazar-Silva, D., Mirani, Z. A., & Asghar, M. (2021). Evaluation of heavy metal pollutants in salt and seawater under the influence of the Lyari River and potential health risk assessment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 166, 112215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112215
Charlebois, E., & Pantopoulos, K. (2023). Nutritional aspects of iron in health and disease. Nutrients, 15, 2441. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15112441
Chebli, A. I., Zergui, A., Amziane, A., Zebbiche, Y., & Abdennour, S. (2024). Metals in honey, cow's milk and eggs in North-East Algeria and health risk. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B, 16, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2024.2414088
Conti, M. V., Bissacco, G., De Giuseppe, R., Calcagno, M. G., D’Antona, G., & Cena, H. (2021). Systemic nickel allergy syndrome (SNAS): Taking stock of medical nutrition therapy SNAS and nutrition. Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health Reports, 5, 225. https://doi.org/10.29011/2577-2228.100225
Cormick, G., & Belizán, J. M. (2019). Calcium intake and health. Nutrients, 11, 1606. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11071606
D’Elia, L. (2024). Potassium intake and human health. Nutrients, 16, 833. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16060833
Demir, F., Kipcak, A. S., Dere Ozdemir, O., & Moroydor Derun, E. (2020). Determination of essential and non-essential element concentrations and health risk assessment of some commercial fruit juices in Turkey. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 57, 4432-4442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04480-9
Deng, Z., Huang, X., Wei, C., Zhang, Y., & Wang, L. (2023). Characteristics and purification of Himalayan salt by high temperature melting. High Temperature Materials and Processes, 42, 20220274. https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2022-0274
Di Salvo, E., Tardugno, R., Nava, V., D’Agostino, A., & Marrocco, M. R. G. (2023). Gourmet table salts: The mineral composition showdown. Toxics, 11, 705. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11080705
Elias, M., Laranjo, M., Agulheiro-Santos, A. C., & Potes, M. E. (2020). The role of salt on food and human health. In: M. Cinku (Ed.), Salt in the earth. London: IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86905
Ercoşkun, H. (2022). Impurities of natural salts of the earth. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B, 16, 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2022.2114016
Erdem, Y., Akpolat, T., Derici, Ü., Şengül, Ş., Ertürk, Ş., & Ulusoy, Ş. (2017). Dietary sources of high sodium intake in Turkey: SALTURK II. Nutrients, 9, 933. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9090933
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority). (2008). Scientific opinion on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and food contact materials on a request from European Commission on safety of aluminium from dietary intake. EFSA Journal, 6, 754. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2008.754
EFSA. (2014). Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for chromium. EFSA Journal, 12, 3845. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3845
EFSA. (2017). Dietary reference values for nutrients: Summary report. EFSA Supporting Publications, e15121. https://doi.org/10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.e15121
EFSA. (2023). Overview on tolerable upper intake levels as derived by the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) and the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA): Technical report. Version 9. EFSA Journal, 21, 111114. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7890
Genchi, G., Carocci, A., Lauria, G., Sinicropi, M. S., & Catalano, A. (2020). Nickel: Human health and environmental toxicology. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 679. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030679
Hançerlioğulları, A., & Eyüboğlu, K. (2020). Natural radionuclide and toxic metal contents of rock salts from mines in Central Anatolia of Turkey. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 102(18), 6555-6564. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2020.1814264
Horasan, B. Y., & Öztürk, A. (2021). Evaluation of heavy metal content of salts between Eskıkışla and Ocakbaşı (Kırıkkale) villages. Turkish Journal of Engineering, 5, 29-34. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.652452
Jomova, K., Alomar, S. Y., Nepovimova, E., Kuca, M., & Valko, M. (2025). Heavy metals: Toxicity and human health effects. Archives of Toxicology, 99, 153-209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-024-03903-2
Kuru, R., Kurt-Mutlu, E., Cempel, E., & Yılmaz, S. (2018). Evaluation of dietary boron in terms of health: A retrospective study. Clinical and Experimental Health Sciences, 8, 296-300. https://doi.org/10.5152/clinexphealthsci.2018.955
Kuru, R., Yılmaz, S., Saçan, Ö., & Cempel, E. (2020). Boron levels in bottled waters in Turkey. Proceedings of the 3rd International Eurasian Conference on Biological and Chemical Sciences, Türkiye, 763-776.
Li, L., & Yang, X. (2018). The essential element manganese, oxidative stress, and metabolic diseases: Links and interactions. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2018, 7580707. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7580707
Lugendo, I. J., & Bugumba, J. (2021). Heavy metals and essential elements in table salt extracted from Bahi wetlands in Central Tanzania. International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Technology, 13, 21-31. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijest.v13i4.3
Marquès, M., Correig, E., Capdevila, E., Gargallo, E., González, N., Nadal, M., & Domingo, J. L. (2022). Essential and non-essential trace elements in milks and plant-based drinks. Biological Trace Element Research, 200, 4524-4533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-021-03021-5
Nagendra, A., Pramod, N., & Mukund, S. (2020). Salt: An overview. Acta Scientific Nutritional Health, 4, 9-16. https://doi.org/10.31080/ASNH.2020.04.0728
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, & Food and Nutrition Board. (2001). Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. National Academy Press.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, & Food and Nutrition Board. (2019). Dietary reference intakes (DRIs): Recommended dietary allowances and adequate intakes, element. In V. A. Stallings, M. Harrison, & M. Oria (Eds.), Dietary reference intakes for sodium and potassium. National Academies Press.
Nielsen F. (2021). Nickel. Advances in Nutrition, 12, 281-282. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmaa154
Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Health. (2019). Türkiye nutrition and health survey. Tiraj.
Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Health. (2022). Dietary guideline for Türkiye. Ministry of Health Press.
Somuncu, B. P., Topbaş, M., Albay, M., Çamur, D., İlter, H., Ayoğlu, F. N., Altın, A., Can, M., Demirtaş, Y., Açıkgöz, B., & Aydın, F. (2025). Essential and toxic elements in nail samples from fishermen in Turkey. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry, 107, 155-177. https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2025.2450445
Sosa-Baldivia, A., Ruiz-Ibarra, G., Robles-de La Torre, R. R., Gordillo-Sobrino, G., Tasistro, A., Etchevers-Barra, J. D., & Reyna-Santamaría, L. (2016). Five causes why boron essentiality on humans has not been confirmed: A hypothesis. Integrative Food, Nutrition and Metabolism, 4, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.15761/IFNM.1000170
Soylak, M., Peker, D. S. K., & Turkoglu, O. (2008). Heavy metal contents of refined and unrefined table salts from Turkey, Egypt and Greece. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 143, 267-272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9975-9
Tumolo, M., Ancona, V., De Paola, D., Losacco, D., Campanale, C., Massarelli, C., & Uricchio, V. F. (2020). Chromium pollution in European water, sources, health risk, and remediation strategies: An overview. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 5438. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155438
Türkiye Mineral Research and Exploration General Directorate. (2024). Rock salt. https://www.mta.gov.tr/en/.
Ukwo, S. (2021). Human health risk assessment of heavy metal contaminants in table salt from Nigeria. Food and Environment Safety Journal, 19(4). https://fens.usv.ro/index.php/FENS/article/view/751
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2024). Integrated risk information system. https://www.epa.gov/iris.
Vincent, J. B., & Lukaski, H. C. (2018). Chromium. Advances in Nutrition, 9, 505-506. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmx021
Witkowska, D., Słowik, J., & Chilicka, K. (2021). Heavy metals and human health: Possible exposure pathways and the competition for protein binding sites. Molecules, 26, 6060. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26196060
World Health Organization. (2024). Salt intake. https://www.who.int/data/gho/indicator-metadata-registry/imr-details/3082
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
